Autogenic Psychotherapy and the Autogenic Psychotherapy Passage by Gastaldo/Ottobre - Statistical Notes.
I.C.A.T. SEMINAR; VIENNA JULY 8th, 1999
A.I.R.D.A.: Associazione Interdisciplinare Ricerca e Didattica sull’Autogonon
Giovanni Gastaldo Miranda Ottobre
A.I.R.D.A.: Associazione Interdisciplinare Ricerca e Didattica sull’Autogonon
Giovanni Gastaldo Miranda Ottobre
I H. Schultz (1951- 1968) and students, among which we can mention W. Luthe (1965), H. Wallnöfer (1992) G. Krapf. (1977) K. Thomas (1986), have developed a complete and consistent psychotherapeutic and psychopromotional system.
This system originates from the concept OF ONENESS and continuum OF psyche and soma. Through a training to deeply accept and to let what is spontaneously generated come to the surface – AUTOGONON -, we arrive to handle such precious moments for therapeutic and psychopromotional purposes and to take advantage of both analytic and cathartic mechanisms.
In our work with Autogenic psychotherapy, we have zeroed in on the following three cornerstones of the construction developed by I.H. Schultz:
Cornerstone 1: ONENESS AND CONTINUUM PSYCHE/SOMA. Schultz’s original idea is to build a bridge, and discover the links, and reciprocals, between psyche and soma, considering them as two aspects of the same reality.
We have adopted Klein’s bottle as a symbol of such oneness.
The great mathematician Felix Klein (1849/1925) designed this bottle as an example of unilateral surface solid in topic geometry.
This system originates from the concept OF ONENESS and continuum OF psyche and soma. Through a training to deeply accept and to let what is spontaneously generated come to the surface – AUTOGONON -, we arrive to handle such precious moments for therapeutic and psychopromotional purposes and to take advantage of both analytic and cathartic mechanisms.
In our work with Autogenic psychotherapy, we have zeroed in on the following three cornerstones of the construction developed by I.H. Schultz:
Cornerstone 1: ONENESS AND CONTINUUM PSYCHE/SOMA. Schultz’s original idea is to build a bridge, and discover the links, and reciprocals, between psyche and soma, considering them as two aspects of the same reality.
We have adopted Klein’s bottle as a symbol of such oneness.
The great mathematician Felix Klein (1849/1925) designed this bottle as an example of unilateral surface solid in topic geometry.
Solids usually have two surfaces, an internal one, and an external one; in order to pass from one surface to the other, we must cross a border. This bottle, on the contrary, is “a closed, unilateral surface”; there is a continuum between the internal surface and the external one. We cannot read it using the ordinary concept of three-dimensional space. We have chosen this particular solid as a symbol of the ONENESS and CONTINUUM we constantly find in every person while working with the Autogenic Training.
Such oneness and continuum are between:
a) Psyche and body
b) Conscious and unconscious.
The neurobiological acquisitions contribute more and more to such concept: stimulations and experiences gained during the critical moments of development of our nervous system, affect synapses formation and modulation. The neurobiological structures, which are the result of the shaping strength of environment on the genetically determined architecture, are at the base of the biological/emotional modalities of action and reaction to the world and to other persons.
E. R. Kandel, one of the most important neurobiologists, writes (1998): ".... The second step, of functional efficacy and of fine modulation of the newly developed synapses, takes place during the early critical period of development and requires adequate environmental stimulations. The third step, represented by the regulation of short and long term synaptic efficacy, takes place in subsequent periods of life.... Environmental factors and learning allow the expression of such latent abilities by modifying the efficacy of pre-existing paths and thus determining the development of new behaviour patterns."
Cornerstone 2: TRAINING. I. H. Schultz introduces the training as one of the fundamental bases of A.T..
When thousands of experiences characterised by a certain mark, have traced biological "marks" in one’s brain, we cannot expect that a single or a few experiences modify, by a miracle, such "marks”. We can reasonably consider that it will take stimulations and experiences, elaborated ad hoc and repeatedly carried out. This is what we do both in the basic Autogenic Training, and in the advanced one. Praxis keeps confirming that training is a fundamental element of A.T.. We have given a further demonstrative contribution through our specific statistical work; Prior M. (1990) , Gastaldo; Ottobre & Prior (1995).
In our work, we have divided subjects who have come to us in order to follow the Basic A.T. for psychotherapeutic reasons, into two groups. The first group includes the subjects who have not carried out a constant or regular training or who trained less than once a day (inadequate TRAINING – INAD. TR.); the second group includes the subjects who have carried out a regular, constant training, exercising once or more than once a day – ADEQUATE TRAINING - AD. TR. -
Let us have a look at the two graphs represented in the next page: the first one refers to distress and the second one to depression. The two higher columns – first and third from the left. - represent the distress level and depression level before the Autogenic Training, the second and the fourth represent the same levels after the sessions.
[In order to measure distress, we administer the “IPAT” test by Cattel. We consider a level up to 6 as normal distress, a level between 7 and 8 as low/medium distress, and a level between 9 and 10 as high distress. In order to measure depression, we administer the Zung test. We consider a level up to 35 as depression not present; a level between 36 and 45 as low depression, a level between 46 and 55 as medium depression, and a level between 56 and 80 as high depression].
The first two columns of both graphs represent the group of subjects who train inadequately and the last two columns the group of subjects who train adequately. We can see that both groups achieve a result – second columns are lower -, but the subjects belonging to the second group achieve a better result and, in effect, the fourth column is lower than the second one.
(Values are indicated in the graphs. The differences between before and after the A.T., and between the results of the first and of the second group, are significant to the Student Test).
Such oneness and continuum are between:
a) Psyche and body
b) Conscious and unconscious.
The neurobiological acquisitions contribute more and more to such concept: stimulations and experiences gained during the critical moments of development of our nervous system, affect synapses formation and modulation. The neurobiological structures, which are the result of the shaping strength of environment on the genetically determined architecture, are at the base of the biological/emotional modalities of action and reaction to the world and to other persons.
E. R. Kandel, one of the most important neurobiologists, writes (1998): ".... The second step, of functional efficacy and of fine modulation of the newly developed synapses, takes place during the early critical period of development and requires adequate environmental stimulations. The third step, represented by the regulation of short and long term synaptic efficacy, takes place in subsequent periods of life.... Environmental factors and learning allow the expression of such latent abilities by modifying the efficacy of pre-existing paths and thus determining the development of new behaviour patterns."
Cornerstone 2: TRAINING. I. H. Schultz introduces the training as one of the fundamental bases of A.T..
When thousands of experiences characterised by a certain mark, have traced biological "marks" in one’s brain, we cannot expect that a single or a few experiences modify, by a miracle, such "marks”. We can reasonably consider that it will take stimulations and experiences, elaborated ad hoc and repeatedly carried out. This is what we do both in the basic Autogenic Training, and in the advanced one. Praxis keeps confirming that training is a fundamental element of A.T.. We have given a further demonstrative contribution through our specific statistical work; Prior M. (1990) , Gastaldo; Ottobre & Prior (1995).
In our work, we have divided subjects who have come to us in order to follow the Basic A.T. for psychotherapeutic reasons, into two groups. The first group includes the subjects who have not carried out a constant or regular training or who trained less than once a day (inadequate TRAINING – INAD. TR.); the second group includes the subjects who have carried out a regular, constant training, exercising once or more than once a day – ADEQUATE TRAINING - AD. TR. -
Let us have a look at the two graphs represented in the next page: the first one refers to distress and the second one to depression. The two higher columns – first and third from the left. - represent the distress level and depression level before the Autogenic Training, the second and the fourth represent the same levels after the sessions.
[In order to measure distress, we administer the “IPAT” test by Cattel. We consider a level up to 6 as normal distress, a level between 7 and 8 as low/medium distress, and a level between 9 and 10 as high distress. In order to measure depression, we administer the Zung test. We consider a level up to 35 as depression not present; a level between 36 and 45 as low depression, a level between 46 and 55 as medium depression, and a level between 56 and 80 as high depression].
The first two columns of both graphs represent the group of subjects who train inadequately and the last two columns the group of subjects who train adequately. We can see that both groups achieve a result – second columns are lower -, but the subjects belonging to the second group achieve a better result and, in effect, the fourth column is lower than the second one.
(Values are indicated in the graphs. The differences between before and after the A.T., and between the results of the first and of the second group, are significant to the Student Test).
Cornerstone 3: AUTOGONON. S. Freud (1980 [i]) conceived a revolutionary idea: to let unconscious contents come to the surface while in consciousness, through free0 associations. Consciousness is a state of " passive wakefulness" and the basic attitude is "I let it happen": we do not follow instructions given by rationality, but we allow a connection given by unconscious links to happen.
Schultz discovers a modality and training to develop this possibility and ability of men.
The state of consciousness experienced for very short moments during free associations, can last for a longer time (Autogenic state) thanks to a special training. This allows very long sequences of "images" and unconscious or subconscious connections to come to the surface while in perfect consciousness; this is what we can obtain with Autogenic Training.
We can define AUTOGENIC TRAINING as a training to listen, to let what spontaneously arises inside oneself come to the surface. That is to train in order to intimately know oneself; listening in order to explore the reality of men; not only passing from body to psyche, and back, without discontinuity, but also from our behaviour to unconscious contents and mechanisms which influence it.
Such nature of A.T., which is almost ignored by most people, unveils itself when A.T. is taught as really Autogenic, renouncing to any suggestive trick. That is, conforming to the indications given by I. H. Schultz ([1]page 345): "... in principle it is sufficient to separate Autogenic Training from any self-inducement effort...", and, ([2][ii]1991) at page 100: "Above all, it is essential for the Autogenic Training to turn inwardly in perfect silence; any word said by the conductor, or any music played, would transform the proceeding in a heterogeneous hypnotization process, in a light, old fashioned heterohypnosis".
In order to better define the concept “Autogenic” the author of this method gives a clearer definition at page 610 of the Italian edition:".... In a soft and submissive way, the Autogenic Training takes us through a process of maturation that is developed toward the highest self-realisation.... It has to take shape only and completely from the individual inner patrimony, the world of his inner behaviours, the substance of the "images" which we all have inside.»
In our book, “Il T.A. in quattro stadi (A.T. in Four Steps)” (1994[iii] - page 85) we have defined the concept of images: "Images are not only the "visual images", but any form of visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, coenaesthetic pseudo-hallucination, any real or metaphoric word, any feeling, any gesture or movement, which is non-casual, but tends to be "image" of something belonging to us, but that we do not perceive".
Autogenic Psychotherapy Passage by Gastaldo Ottobre We can consider the Autogenic psychotherapy passage in four steps, which we have developed and experimented on approximately 3000 subjects, as one of the possible psychotherapeutic and/or psychopromotional passages which can potentially be conceived when acting consistently with the introductory conditions, the style and the techniques developed by Schultz and students. The organisation in so called steps also derives from the need of a statistical validation. Every patient can conclude his own passage at any step, when he believes to have reached the expected results, or can decide to attend the following step.
Those who attend only the 1st step, - nine group sessions, which take place over a period of two months - have followed a short learning; they will be able to continue their work on their inner selves for the rest of their life (in the statistical notes, which we are now going to present, we are going to call this phase: «A» Therapy). We are now talking about short-term therapies. The two thirds of the subjects conclude their passage at this step. Those who do not have reached the expected results, can follow the second step, weekly individual sessions; this step is based on moments when the subject, in Autogenic state, lets anything that spontaneously surfaces come to
the surface. The average number of sessions is approximately 30/40: we call the part of passage constituted by 1st step and 2nd step «B» Therapy; we can consider it a medium term therapy. Those who have not reached the expected results can follow the 3rd step, constituted by 15 group sessions - Advanced Analytic Autogenic Training; they can then continue to work by themselves, at home, doing the sessions learnt during 1st, 2nd or 3rd step. This is the 4th step of our passage; some subjects continue to visit regularly our practice. We call the part of passage constituted by 1st, 2nd, 3rd step, and first year after the 3rd step, «C» Therapy. We can consider this as a long-term therapy.
At the beginning of the passage, every subject performs a set of tests, which allows us to sound the different discomfort areas: IPAT distress test by Cattel with its various components: feelings about oneself, self-strength, paranoid insecurity, guilty feeling, drives coming from subconsciuousness. He also does the depression test by Zung, and fills up questionnaires about psychosomatic symptoms, psychic symptoms, use of psychotropic drugs, and self-evaluation of possible clinical improvements. We also administer the complete Luscher colour test.
Along the passage, he performs sets of tests: first set, before the beginning of the passage; second set, two months after the end of the A.T. step; third set, six months later. The fourth set is administered at the end of the 2nd step and the fifth set at the end of 3rd step; the sixth set one year after the end of the A.A.A.T. that means during the 4th step. The seventh, not yet activated, will be a catamnestic exploration.
We have devoted a whole chapter of our book: “Il T.A. in quattro stadi (A.T. in Four Steps)” to an overall exposition of all data collected before 1993 (GASTALDO G. OTTOBRE M. 1994) and to a discussion about the method used and the results achieved in our study. We have noticed that the statistical/clinical results were positive and validated by the Student test or by the c2, for every group of patients at every step of the passage and for all parameters of the sets of tests. We have considered that, even if we did not have a control group, this bijective consistency could not be casual, and was strengthened by the significant difference between those who trained insufficiently and those who trained regularly (as we have seen earlier).
Now, in this context, we can only show a few graphs, representing the data collected until 1998; They are relevant to the first, second, fourth and sixth set of tests. The data are not different in a statistically significant way from those already published in the works we previously mentioned; the only difference is that they are relevant to a higher number of subjects. We therefore refer to such works as far as the relevant discussion is concerned
Schultz discovers a modality and training to develop this possibility and ability of men.
The state of consciousness experienced for very short moments during free associations, can last for a longer time (Autogenic state) thanks to a special training. This allows very long sequences of "images" and unconscious or subconscious connections to come to the surface while in perfect consciousness; this is what we can obtain with Autogenic Training.
We can define AUTOGENIC TRAINING as a training to listen, to let what spontaneously arises inside oneself come to the surface. That is to train in order to intimately know oneself; listening in order to explore the reality of men; not only passing from body to psyche, and back, without discontinuity, but also from our behaviour to unconscious contents and mechanisms which influence it.
Such nature of A.T., which is almost ignored by most people, unveils itself when A.T. is taught as really Autogenic, renouncing to any suggestive trick. That is, conforming to the indications given by I. H. Schultz ([1]page 345): "... in principle it is sufficient to separate Autogenic Training from any self-inducement effort...", and, ([2][ii]1991) at page 100: "Above all, it is essential for the Autogenic Training to turn inwardly in perfect silence; any word said by the conductor, or any music played, would transform the proceeding in a heterogeneous hypnotization process, in a light, old fashioned heterohypnosis".
In order to better define the concept “Autogenic” the author of this method gives a clearer definition at page 610 of the Italian edition:".... In a soft and submissive way, the Autogenic Training takes us through a process of maturation that is developed toward the highest self-realisation.... It has to take shape only and completely from the individual inner patrimony, the world of his inner behaviours, the substance of the "images" which we all have inside.»
In our book, “Il T.A. in quattro stadi (A.T. in Four Steps)” (1994[iii] - page 85) we have defined the concept of images: "Images are not only the "visual images", but any form of visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, coenaesthetic pseudo-hallucination, any real or metaphoric word, any feeling, any gesture or movement, which is non-casual, but tends to be "image" of something belonging to us, but that we do not perceive".
Autogenic Psychotherapy Passage by Gastaldo Ottobre We can consider the Autogenic psychotherapy passage in four steps, which we have developed and experimented on approximately 3000 subjects, as one of the possible psychotherapeutic and/or psychopromotional passages which can potentially be conceived when acting consistently with the introductory conditions, the style and the techniques developed by Schultz and students. The organisation in so called steps also derives from the need of a statistical validation. Every patient can conclude his own passage at any step, when he believes to have reached the expected results, or can decide to attend the following step.
Those who attend only the 1st step, - nine group sessions, which take place over a period of two months - have followed a short learning; they will be able to continue their work on their inner selves for the rest of their life (in the statistical notes, which we are now going to present, we are going to call this phase: «A» Therapy). We are now talking about short-term therapies. The two thirds of the subjects conclude their passage at this step. Those who do not have reached the expected results, can follow the second step, weekly individual sessions; this step is based on moments when the subject, in Autogenic state, lets anything that spontaneously surfaces come to
the surface. The average number of sessions is approximately 30/40: we call the part of passage constituted by 1st step and 2nd step «B» Therapy; we can consider it a medium term therapy. Those who have not reached the expected results can follow the 3rd step, constituted by 15 group sessions - Advanced Analytic Autogenic Training; they can then continue to work by themselves, at home, doing the sessions learnt during 1st, 2nd or 3rd step. This is the 4th step of our passage; some subjects continue to visit regularly our practice. We call the part of passage constituted by 1st, 2nd, 3rd step, and first year after the 3rd step, «C» Therapy. We can consider this as a long-term therapy.
At the beginning of the passage, every subject performs a set of tests, which allows us to sound the different discomfort areas: IPAT distress test by Cattel with its various components: feelings about oneself, self-strength, paranoid insecurity, guilty feeling, drives coming from subconsciuousness. He also does the depression test by Zung, and fills up questionnaires about psychosomatic symptoms, psychic symptoms, use of psychotropic drugs, and self-evaluation of possible clinical improvements. We also administer the complete Luscher colour test.
Along the passage, he performs sets of tests: first set, before the beginning of the passage; second set, two months after the end of the A.T. step; third set, six months later. The fourth set is administered at the end of the 2nd step and the fifth set at the end of 3rd step; the sixth set one year after the end of the A.A.A.T. that means during the 4th step. The seventh, not yet activated, will be a catamnestic exploration.
We have devoted a whole chapter of our book: “Il T.A. in quattro stadi (A.T. in Four Steps)” to an overall exposition of all data collected before 1993 (GASTALDO G. OTTOBRE M. 1994) and to a discussion about the method used and the results achieved in our study. We have noticed that the statistical/clinical results were positive and validated by the Student test or by the c2, for every group of patients at every step of the passage and for all parameters of the sets of tests. We have considered that, even if we did not have a control group, this bijective consistency could not be casual, and was strengthened by the significant difference between those who trained insufficiently and those who trained regularly (as we have seen earlier).
Now, in this context, we can only show a few graphs, representing the data collected until 1998; They are relevant to the first, second, fourth and sixth set of tests. The data are not different in a statistically significant way from those already published in the works we previously mentioned; the only difference is that they are relevant to a higher number of subjects. We therefore refer to such works as far as the relevant discussion is concerned
As far as global distress, guilty feeling and depression - but also the remaining parameters we are not mentioning here – are concerned, we can observe that the subjects who follow «C» Therapy, start from the highest level of uneasiness and reach a level that is lower than that reached by patients who follow «B» Therapy. The same applies to these patients, when compared with those who follow the «A» Therapy
We must underline that the group of those who follow «C» Therapy is composed by subjects presenting not only serious neuroses but also psychoses: schizophrenic, paranoid, depressive (18 subjects), phobic-obsessive syndromes (14 subjects) and borderline syndromes (12 subjects)
We believe that our results tally with one of the findings of the important survey carried out in the States by Consumer Reports on 7.000 persons. They observed that: “ long term psychotherapeutic treatments grant definitely better results than short term treatments ”. This appears to be logical if we consider the above mentioned recent neurobiological acquisitions; and all this makes us appreciate even more (SELIGMAN M. E.P. 1997) the ability of I.H Schultz to be in advance of his time. He made of training a fundamental basis of his psychotherapeutic system and pushed the Basic A.T. toward a psychotherapeutic system having higher action potentialities and mechanisms with a passage that, if required, can be prolonged.
We must underline that the group of those who follow «C» Therapy is composed by subjects presenting not only serious neuroses but also psychoses: schizophrenic, paranoid, depressive (18 subjects), phobic-obsessive syndromes (14 subjects) and borderline syndromes (12 subjects)
We believe that our results tally with one of the findings of the important survey carried out in the States by Consumer Reports on 7.000 persons. They observed that: “ long term psychotherapeutic treatments grant definitely better results than short term treatments ”. This appears to be logical if we consider the above mentioned recent neurobiological acquisitions; and all this makes us appreciate even more (SELIGMAN M. E.P. 1997) the ability of I.H Schultz to be in advance of his time. He made of training a fundamental basis of his psychotherapeutic system and pushed the Basic A.T. toward a psychotherapeutic system having higher action potentialities and mechanisms with a passage that, if required, can be prolonged.
Bibliografia
FREUD S. (1980): "Per la storia del movimento psicoanalitico", par. 1, pag. 389; Freud Opere, vol.VII, Boringhieri, Torino.
GASTALDO G. OTTOBRE M. (1994): "Il Training Autogeno in quattro stadi; l’appuntamento con se stessi"; Armando Editore, Roma.
GASTALDO G. OTTOBRE M. & PRIOR M. (1995): "La psicoterapia Autogena in quattro stadi: analisi statistica su duemila casi" Imagination, Nr. 2/1995. Pag. 92, Facultas - Universitäts verlag, Wien.
KANDEL E. R. (1988): "principi di neuroscienze"; Casa Editrice Ambrosiana, seconda edizione, Milano -pag. 881.
KRAPF G. (1977): "Autogenes Training aus der praxsis" J.F. Lehmanns Verlag. München.
LUTHE W. (1965): "Autogenic Therapy". Grume & Stratton, New York, London.
PRIOR M. (1990): "T.A. Somatico: incidenza della variabile «regolarità dell'allenamento» nella diminuzione dell'ansia e della depressione", rivista di psicoterapie, ipnosi, vol. 1, n.1, edizioni EUR.
THOMAS K. (1986): "Autoipnosi e Training Autogeno"; Ed. Mediterranee, Roma.
SCHULTZ I.H. (1951): "Bionome Psychotherapie", Thiene, Stuttgart,
SCHULTZ I.H. (1968): "Il Training Autogeno". Feltrinelli Editore, Milano -I - II Vol
Schultz I.H. (1991): "Das Autogene Training" George Thieme Verlag Stuttgart New York (19^ ed. in lingua tedesca)
Il brano citato è stato tradotto letteralmente dalla Dr. Ottobre M. dall'edizione in lingua tedesca prima citata: tale concetto, nella traduzione italiana di G. Crosa, effettuata dalla 12^ in lingua tedesca (Schultz I.H., "Il Training Autogeno", Feltrinelli, Milano 1968.) a pag. 136, , è ugualmente chiaro anche se un po’ meno preciso.
SELIGMAN M. E.P. (1997): “L’efficacia della psicoterapia”, pag. 11-32; “Integrazione nelle Psicoterapie e nel Counseling”, rivista semestrale di studi e ricerche numero ½ . Edizioni Scientifiche A.S.P.I.C.
WALLNÖFER H. (1992): "Anima senza ansia". Edizioni Universitarie Romane, Roma.
FREUD S. (1980): "Per la storia del movimento psicoanalitico", par. 1, pag. 389; Freud Opere, vol.VII, Boringhieri, Torino.
GASTALDO G. OTTOBRE M. (1994): "Il Training Autogeno in quattro stadi; l’appuntamento con se stessi"; Armando Editore, Roma.
GASTALDO G. OTTOBRE M. & PRIOR M. (1995): "La psicoterapia Autogena in quattro stadi: analisi statistica su duemila casi" Imagination, Nr. 2/1995. Pag. 92, Facultas - Universitäts verlag, Wien.
KANDEL E. R. (1988): "principi di neuroscienze"; Casa Editrice Ambrosiana, seconda edizione, Milano -pag. 881.
KRAPF G. (1977): "Autogenes Training aus der praxsis" J.F. Lehmanns Verlag. München.
LUTHE W. (1965): "Autogenic Therapy". Grume & Stratton, New York, London.
PRIOR M. (1990): "T.A. Somatico: incidenza della variabile «regolarità dell'allenamento» nella diminuzione dell'ansia e della depressione", rivista di psicoterapie, ipnosi, vol. 1, n.1, edizioni EUR.
THOMAS K. (1986): "Autoipnosi e Training Autogeno"; Ed. Mediterranee, Roma.
SCHULTZ I.H. (1951): "Bionome Psychotherapie", Thiene, Stuttgart,
SCHULTZ I.H. (1968): "Il Training Autogeno". Feltrinelli Editore, Milano -I - II Vol
Schultz I.H. (1991): "Das Autogene Training" George Thieme Verlag Stuttgart New York (19^ ed. in lingua tedesca)
Il brano citato è stato tradotto letteralmente dalla Dr. Ottobre M. dall'edizione in lingua tedesca prima citata: tale concetto, nella traduzione italiana di G. Crosa, effettuata dalla 12^ in lingua tedesca (Schultz I.H., "Il Training Autogeno", Feltrinelli, Milano 1968.) a pag. 136, , è ugualmente chiaro anche se un po’ meno preciso.
SELIGMAN M. E.P. (1997): “L’efficacia della psicoterapia”, pag. 11-32; “Integrazione nelle Psicoterapie e nel Counseling”, rivista semestrale di studi e ricerche numero ½ . Edizioni Scientifiche A.S.P.I.C.
WALLNÖFER H. (1992): "Anima senza ansia". Edizioni Universitarie Romane, Roma.
